Effects of psychological safety and cognitive decentering on performance perception of young para-athletes: Mediation of athlete mindfulness in parasports education

Authors

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.33910/2686-9527-2025-7-4-504-515

Keywords:

psychological safety, decentering, culture, mindfulness, performance

Abstract

Introduction. Research examining sport psychological safety among para-athletes remains limited. This study explores the effects of psychological safety and decentering on performance perception and investigates whether athlete mindfulness mediates the relationship between decentering and performance perception. The goal is to inform the development of sport-specific mindfulness programs tailored for para-athletes.

Materials and Methods. This cross-sectional correlational study was conducted following the STROBE checklist. A purposive sample of 110 para-athletes was recruited from the Punjab Sports Board in Pakistan. The research complied with the ethical standards of Hazara University, Pakistan. Valid and reliable instruments were employed, including the Sport Psychological Safety Inventory (Rice et al. 2022), the Decentering Scale for Sport (Zhang 2023b), the Sport Performance Perception Questionnaire (Adam et al. 2023), and the Athlete Mindfulness Questionnaire (Zhang 2023a). Participants completed pen-and-paper questionnaires from January to March 2025. Data were analyzed using IBM SPSS version 25. Statistical analyses included descriptive and inferential statistics, Pearson product-moment correlation, multiple regression, multivariate analysis of variance, independent samples t-test, and the Hayes PROCESS macro.

Results. Following normality tests, the application of Log10, and square root transformations, parametric tests were conducted. The Pearson product-moment correlation revealed significant positive associations among sport psychological safety, decentering, and performance perception. Multiple regression analysis indicated that both psychological safety and decentering are significant predictors of performance perception in para-athletes. The multivariate analysis of variance revealed a main effect of income and years in sport on all constructs. The Hayes PROCESS macro demonstrated that athlete mindfulness substantially mediates the relationship between decentering and performance perception.

Conclusion. Addressing mental health and psychological factors within sports education is essential. Promoting psychological safety in sports can support para-athletes, children with disabilities, and adolescents facing physical health challenges, thereby fostering a more inclusive sports culture. Emphasis should be placed on enhancing para-athletes’ mindfulness through cognitive and behavioral therapeutic interventions.

References

Adam, M. E., Ferguson, L. J., Mosewich, A. D., Kowalski, K. C. (2023) The Sport Performance Perceptions Scale (SPPS) Manual. Saskatoon: College of Kinesiology; University of Saskatchewan Publ., 9 p. (In English)

Alexander-Urquhart, D., Bentzen, M., Kenttä, G., Bloom, G. A. (2024) Exploring interpretations and implications of coaches’ use of humour in three national paralympic teams. International Sport Coaching Journal, vol. 12, no. 17, pp. 481–489. https://doi.org/10.1123/iscj.2024-0003 (In English)

Ali, Y., Kotera, Y., Cotterill, M. et al. (2025) Sport emotions, anxiety, task and ego orientation in Pakistani adolescents: Mediating the role of coaching in athlete purpose. Future, vol. 3, no. 2, article 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/future3020011 (In English)

Baltzell, A., Caraballo, N., Chipman, K., Hayden, L. (2014) A qualitative study of the mindfulness meditation training for sport: Division I female soccer players’ experience. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 221–244. https://doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.2014-0030 (In English)

Balyi, I., Way, R., Higgs, C. (2013) Long-term athlete development. Champaign: Human Kinetics Publ., 287 p. (In English)

Barker, N., Parker, H. (2024) Hybrid performances in sport: Cybathlon spectatorship for critically imagining technologies for disability futures. Medical Humanities, vol. 50, no. 4, article e013031. https://doi.org/10.1136/medhum-2024-013031 (In English)

Beable, S. E. (2024) Depressive disorders in athletes. Clinics in Sports Medicine, vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 53–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csm.2023.06.011 (In English)

Brown, E. A., White, B. M. (2020) Recognizing privilege as a social determinant of health during COVID-19. Health Equity, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1089/heq.2020.0038 (In English)

Burns, L., Weissensteiner, J. R., Cohen, M. (2019) Lifestyles and mindsets of Olympic, Paralympic and world champions: Is an integrated approach the key to elite performance? British Journal of Sports Medicine, vol. 53, no. 13, pp. 818–824. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2018-099217 (In English)

Burrows, K., Cunningham, L., Raukar-Herman, C. (2021) IOC mental health in elite athletes toolkit. Lausanne: International Olympic Committee Publ., 100 p. (In English)

Carraça, B., Serpa, S., Rosado, A., Guerrero, J. P. (2019) A pilot study of a mindfulness-based program (MBSoccerP): The potential role of mindfulness, self-compassion and psychological flexibility on flow and elite performance in soccer athletes. Revista Iberoamericana de psicologia del ejercicio y el deporte, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 34–40. (In English)

Diotaiuti, P., Valente, G., Corrado, S., Mancone, S. (2023) Assessing decentering capacity in athletes: A moderated mediation model. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, vol. 20, no. 4, article 3324. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20043324 (In English)

Edwards, S., Sherwood, P., Naidoo, N. et al. (2013) Investigation into breath meditation: Phenomenological, neurophysiologic, psychotherapeutic and sport psychological implications. African Journal for Physical, Health Education, Recreation & Dance (AJPHERD), vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 394–418. (In English)

Ely, F. O. (2023) Bridging the Gap Between Research and Practice: Description, Implementation, and Evaluation of Online Psychological Skills Training for Para-Athletes. PhD dissertation (Philosophy). Windsor, University of Windsor, 183 p. (In English)

Ezhova, A. (2025) Effective communication strategies between coaches and athletes. Universum: Psychology and Education, no. 2 (128), pp. 49–52. (In English)

Ford, N. L., Wyckoff, S. N., Sherlin, L. H. (2016) Neurofeedback and mindfulness in peak performance training among athletes. Biofeedback, vol. 44, no. 3, pp. 152–159. https://doi.org/10.5298/1081-5937-44.3.11 (In English)

Fransen, K., McEwan, D., Sarkar, M. (2020) The impact of identity leadership on team functioning and well-being in team sport: Is psychological safety the missing link? Psychology of Sport and Exercise, vol. 51, article 101763. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2020.101763 (In English)

Gao, Y., Shi, L., Fu, N. et al. (2024) Mobile-delivered mindfulness intervention on anxiety level among college athletes: Randomized controlled trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research, vol. 26, article e40406. https://doi.org/10.2196/40406 (In English)

Grushko, A. I., Isaev, A. V., Kaminsky, I. V. et al. (2019) Modern trends of sport psychology in Russian psychological society. Psychologist Papers, vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 64–73. https://doi.org/10.23923/pap.psicol2019.2883 (In English)

Heckman, C. (2018) The effect of mindfulness and meditation in sports performance. Kinesiology, sport studies, and physical education synthesis projects, no. 47. [Online]. Available at: http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12648/4023 (accessed 15.06.2025). (In English)

Hut, M., Minkler, T. O., Glass, C. R. et al. (2023) A randomized controlled study of mindful sport performance enhancement and psychological skills training with collegiate track and field athletes. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 284–306. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2021.1989521 (In English)

Killham, M. E., Mosewich, A. D., Mack, D. E. et al. (2018) Women athletes’ self-compassion, self-criticism, and perceived sport performance. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 297–307. https://doi.org/10.1037/spy0000127 (In English)

Kokun, O. M., Shamych, O. M. (2016) Psychological characteristics of Paralympic athletes’ self-realisation. Social Welfare: interdisciplinary approach, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 139–147. https://doi.org/10.21277/sw.v2i6.273 (In English)

Lange, V. (2025) Decentering and attention. Philosophical Psychology, vol. 38, no. 4, pp. 1530–1557. https://doi.org/10.1080/09515089.2023.2263034 (In English)

Loftus, S., Taylor, R., Grecic, D., Harper, D. J. (2022) Olympic and Paralympic coaches living with stress—is it such a problem? Potential implications for future coach education in sport. International Sport Coaching Journal, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 29–41. https://doi.org/10.1123/iscj.2021-0078 (In English)

McNamee, M. J., Parnell, R. J. (2018) Paralympic philosophy and ethics. In: I. Brittain, A. Beacom (eds.). The Palgrave handbook of Paralympic Studies. Berlin: Springer Publ., pp. 461–478. (In English)

Meidl, V., Dallmann, P., Steffen, K. et al. (2024) Mental health surveillance in elite Para athletes: Early identification and follow-up of athletes at risk of mental health problems. British Journal of Sports Medicine, vol. 58, no. 16, pp. 902–909. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2023-107995 (In English)

Mikhailova, O. B., Bashkin, E. B., Gutvajn, N., Berberyan, A. S. (2022) Personality mental health – challenges and solution: Results of the 3rd international forum on commitment to mental health. RUDN Journal of Psychology and Pedagogics, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 879–891. https://doi.org/10.22363/2313-1683-2022-19-4-879-891 (In English)

Miller, B., Barker, J. B., Hunton, E., Plateau, C. R. (2024) Understanding experiences of and influences on well-being in elite para-sport: A qualitative exploration of U.K. para-athletes. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 126–143. https://doi.org/10.1037/spy0000342 (In English)

Mozafari Zadeh, M., Heidari, F., Khabiri, M. (2019) Effectiveness of mindfulness and acceptance training on reducing sport injury anxiety and improving performance of soccer players. The Scientific Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 95–108. https://doi.org/10.22037/jrm.2018.111232.1851 (In Persian)

Oggero, G., Puli, L., Smith, E. M., Khasnabis, C. (2021) Participation and achievement in the summer Paralympic games: The influence of income, sex, and assistive technology. Sustainability, vol. 13, no. 21, article 11758. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132111758 (In English)

Osipov, A., Kudryavtsev, M., Fedorova, P. et al. (2017) Comparative analysis of the scientific views of Russian and foreign scientists on the problem of training skilled judo wrestlers. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 288–293. http://dx.doi.org/10.7752/jpes.2017.01043 (In English)

Puce, L., Marinelli, L., Girtler, N. G. et al. (2019) Self-perceived psychophysical well-being of young competitive swimmers with physical or intellectual impairment. Perceptual and Motor Skills, vol. 126, no. 5, pp. 862–885. https://doi.org/10.1177/0031512519865849 (In English)

Rice, S., Walton, C. C. Pilkington, V. et al. (2022) Psychological safety in elite sport settings: A psychometric study of the Sport Psychological Safety Inventory. BMJ Open Sport & Exercise Medicine, vol. 8, no. 2, article e001251. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjsem-2021-001251 (In English)

Robinson, S., Fraser-Thomas, J. L., Balogh, R. et al. (2018) Individual and contextual correlates of frequently involved Special Olympics athletes. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, vol. 123, no. 2, pp. 164–175. https://doi.org/10.1352/1944-7558-123.2.164 (In English)

Rodríguez Macías, M, Giménez Fuentes-Guerra, F. J., Abad Robles, M. T. (2022) The sport training process of Para-athletes: A systematic review. Environmental Research and Public Health, vol. 19, no. 12, article 7242. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19127242 (In English)

Rogowska, A. M., Tataruch, R. (2024) The relationship between mindfulness and athletes’ mental skills may be explained by emotion regulation and self-regulation. BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation, vol. 16, no. 1, article 68. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13102-024-00863-z (In English)

Rooks, J., Morrison, A. B., Goolsarran, M. et al. (2017) “We are talking about practice”: The influence of mindfulness vs. relaxation training on athletes’ attention and well-being over high-demand intervals. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 141–153. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-017-0016-5 (In English)

Rutland, E. A., Suttiratana, S. C., da Silva Vieira, S. et al. (2022) Para athletes’ perceptions of abuse: A qualitative study across three lower resourced countries. British Journal of Sports Medicine, vol. 56, no, 10, pp. 561–567. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2021-104545 (In English)

Ryskin, P., Kocheryan, M., Davydova, E. (2019) Self-identification features of professional athletes in modern Russia. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 1118–1125. https://doi.org/10.7752/jpes.2019.02162 (In English)

Saxe, K., Hardin, R. (2022) Psychological safety in athletic team environments. Journal of Sport Behavior, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 203–216. (In English)

Schinke, R. J., Giffin, C., Cosh, S et al. (2024) International society of sport psychology position stand: Mental health through occupational health and safety in high-performance sport. In: R. J. Schinke (ed.). Mental health in sport and physical activity. London: Routledge Publ., pp. 21–49. (In English)

Seabury, T., Benton, D., Young, H. A. (2023) Interoceptive differences in elite sprint and long-distance runners: a multidimensional investigation. PLoS ONE, vol. 18, no. 1, article 0278067. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0278067 (In English)

Shestakov, M. P., Myakinchenko, E. B. (2018) Control and management in athletic training of the Russian national teams. Journal of Sports Science, vol. 6, pp. 118–128. (In https://doi.org/10.17265/2332-7839/2018.02.007 English)

Sobiecka, J., Plinta, R., Kądziołka, M. et al. (2019) Polish Paralympic sports in the opinion of athletes and coaches in retrospective studies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, vol. 16, no. 24, article 4927. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16244927 (In English)

Sőnksen, P. H., Bavington, L. D., Boehning, T. et al. (2018) Hyperandrogenism controversy in elite women’s sport: An examination and critique of recent evidence. British Journal of Sports Medicine, vol. 52, no. 23, pp. 1481–1482. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2017-098446 (In English)

Swartz, L., Hunt, X., Bantjes, J. et al. (2019) Mental health symptoms and disorders in Paralympic athletes: A narrative review. British Journal of Sports Medicine, vol. 53, no. 12, pp. 737–740. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2019-100731 (In English)

Tuakli-Wosornu, Y. A., Kirby, S. L. (2022) Safeguarding reimagined: Centering athletes’ rights and repositioning para sport to chart a new path. Frontiers in Psychology, vol. 13, article 815038. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.815038 (In English)

Vella, S. A., Mayland, E., Schweickle, M. J. et al. (2024) Psychological safety in sport: A systematic review and concept analysis. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 516–539. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2022.2028306 (In English)

Wallman-Jones, A., Perakakis, P., Tsakiris, M., Schmidt, M. (2021) Physical activity and interoceptive processing: Theoretical considerations for future research. International Journal of Psychophysiology, vol. 166, pp. 38–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2021.05.002 (In English)

Yu, M.G., Dou, G. B., Gong, C. (2024) Effects of mindfulness intervention on competition state anxiety in sprinters — a randomized controlled trial. Frontiers in Psychology, vol. 15, article 1418094. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1418094 (In English)

Zhang, C. Q. (2023a) Athlete mindfulness questionnaire (AMQ). In: O. N. Medvedev, C. U. Krägeloh, R. J. Siegert, N. N. Singh (eds.). Handbook of Assessment in Mindfulness Research. Cham: Springer Publ., pp. 515–523. (In English)

Zhang, C. Q. (2023b) Decentering scale for sport (DSS). In: O. N. Medvedev, C. U. Krägeloh, R. J. Siegert, N. N. Singh (eds.). Handbook of assessment in mindfulness research. Cham: Springer Publ., pp. 1–11. (In English)

Zhang, C. Q., Li, X., Si, G. et al. (2023) Examining the roles of experiential avoidance and cognitive fusion on the effects from mindfulness to athlete burnout: A longitudinal study. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, vol. 64, article 102341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2022.102341 (In English)

Zhong, Z., Jiang, H., Wang, H., Liu, Y. (2024) Mindfulness, social evaluation anxiety, and self-regulation: Exploring their association on impulsive behavior among athletes. Frontiers in Psychiatry, vol. 15, article 1404680. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1404680 (In English)

Downloads

Published

2025-12-29

How to Cite

Ali, Y., & Shah, S. M. I. (2025). Effects of psychological safety and cognitive decentering on performance perception of young para-athletes: Mediation of athlete mindfulness in parasports education. Psychology in Education, 7(4), 504–515. https://doi.org/10.33910/2686-9527-2025-7-4-504-515

Issue

Vol. 7 No. 4 (2025)

Section

Articles

License

Copyright (c) 2025 Yumna Ali, Syed M. I. Shah

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

The work is provided under the terms of the Public Offer and of Creative Commons public license Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0).

This license permits an unlimited number of users to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format, and to remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, including commercial use.

This license retains copyright for the authors but allows others to freely distribute, use, and adapt the work, on the mandatory condition that appropriate credit is given. Users must provide a correct link to the original publication in our journal, cite the authors' names, and indicate if any changes were made.

Copyright remains with the authors. The CC BY 4.0 license does not transfer rights to third parties but rather grants users prior permission for use, provided the attribution condition is met. Any use of the work will be governed by the terms of this license.