The impact of digital technologies on sleep and learning: An overview of recent research and neuroscientific analysis
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.33910/2686-9527-2025-7-3-408-419Keywords:
neuroscience, education, technology, sleep, learning, smartphones, computer games, social media, digital readingAbstract
This article examines the neuroscientific underpinnings of how new technologies impact sleep — an essential component for development, memory and learning
We will look on the implications of proper rest on development and education by reviewing recent research on smartphone use, social media engagement, and the role of computer games and reading habits in digital literacy.
A growing body of evidence highlights the role of brain systems associated with the default mode network (DMN), essential for introspective processes such as self-awareness, reflection, autobiographical memory retrieval, future planning, socioemotional reasoning, and moral judgements. This paper explores how technology-induced habits disrupt these neural processes, subsequently affecting sleep architecture, attentional control, and learning efficiency. During sleep, the brain actively reprocesses daily experiences, discarding irrelevant information and consolidating meaningful memories into long-term storage. By analyzing the impact of technology on this restorative process, this review aims to provide insights that can inform pedagogical strategies.
References
Abraham, A., Pocheptsova, A., Ferraro, R. (2012) The effect of mobile phone use on prosocial behavior. [Online]. Available at: https://www.academia.edu/55138727/The_effect_of_mobile_phone_use_on_prosocial_behavior (accessed 13.06.2025). (In English)
Akçay, D., Akçay, B. D. (2018) The influence of media on the sleep quality in adolescents. The Turkish Journal of Pediatrics, vol. 60, no. 3, pp. 255–263. https://doi.org/10.24953/turkjped.2018.03.004 (In English)
Alonzo, R., Hussain, J., Stranges, S., Anderson, K. K. (2021) Interplay between social media use, sleep quality, and mental health in youth: A systematic review. Sleep Medicine Reviews, vol. 56, article 101414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2020.101414 (In English)
Amra, B., Shahsavari, A., Shayan-Moghadam, R. et al. (2017) The association of sleep and late-night cell phone use among adolescents. Jornal de Pediatria, vol. 93, no. 6, pp. 560–567. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jped.2016.12.004 (In English)
Angster, A., Frank, M., Lester, D. (2010) An exploratory study of students’ use of cell phones, texting, and social networking sites. Psychological Reports, vol. 107, no. 2, pp. 402–404. https://doi.org/10.2466/17.PR0.107.5.402-404 (In English)
Barlett, C. P., Anderson, C. A., Swing, E. L. (2009) Video game effects—confirmed, suspected, and speculative: A review of the evidence. Simulation & Gaming, vol. 40, no. 3, pp. 377–403. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046878108327539 (In English)
Bartel, K., Gradisar, M. (2017) New directions in the link between technology use and sleep in young people. In: S. Nevšímalová, O. Bruni (eds.). Sleep disorders in children. Cham: Springer Publ., pp. 69–80. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28640-2_4 (In English)
Borgonovi, F. (2016) Video gaming and gender differences in digital and printed reading performance among 15-year-olds students in 26 countries. Journal of Adolescence, vol. 48, no. 1, pp. 45–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.01.004 (In English)
Bracket, M., Rivers, S. E., Reyes, M. R., Salovey, P. (2012) Enhancing academic performance and social and emotional competence with the RULER feeling words curriculum. Learning and Individual Differences, vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 218–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2010.10.002 (In English)
Brautsch, L. A., Lund, L., Andersen, M. M. et al. (2023) Digital media use and sleep in late adolescence and young adulthood: A systematic review. Sleep Medicine Reviews, vol. 68, article 101742. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2022.101742 (In English)
Brown, S., Vaughan, C. (2009) Play. How it shapes the brain, opens the imagination, and invigorates the soul. New York: Avery Publ., 240 p. (In English)
Buckner, R. L., Andrews-Hanna, J. R., Schacter, D. L. (2008) The brain’s default network: Anatomy, function, and relevance to disease. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol. 1124, no. 1, pp. 1–38. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1440.011 (In English)
Buckner, R. L., Carroll, D. C. (2007) Self-projection and the brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 49–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2006.11.004 (In English)
Burnell, K., George, M. J., Jensen, M. et al. (2022) Associations between adolescents’ daily digital technology use and sleep. Journal of Adolescent Health, vol. 70, no. 3, pp. 450–456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2021.09.033 (In English)
Cabré-Riera, A., Torrent, M., Donaire-Gonzalez, D. et al. (2019) Telecommunication devices use, screen time and sleep in adolescents. Environmental Research, vol. 171, pp. 341–347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2018.10.036 (In English)
Cain, N., Gradisar, M. (2010) Electronic media use and sleep in school-aged children and adolescents: A review. Sleep Medicine, vol. 11, no. 8, pp. 735–742. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2010.02.006 (In English)
Carter, B., Rees, P., Hale, L. et al. (2016) Association between portable screen-based media device access or use and sleep outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatrics, vol. 170, no. 12, pp. 1202–1208. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2016.2341 (In English)
Caumo, G. H., Spritzer, D., Carissimi, A., Tonon, A. C. (2020) Exposure to electronic devices and sleep quality in adolescents: A matter of type, duration, and timing. Sleep health, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 172–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2019.12.004 (In English)
Chu, Y., Oh, Y., Gwon, M. et al. (2023) Dose-response analysis of smartphone usage and self-reported sleep quality: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 621–630. https://doi.org/10.5664/jcsm.10392 (In English)
Cole-Lewis, H., Kershaw, T. (2010) Text messaging as a tool for behavior change in disease prevention and management. Epidemiologic Reviews, vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 56–69. https://doi.org/10.1093/epirev/mxq004 (In English)
Corbetta, M., Shulman, G. L. (2002) Control of goal-directed and stimulus-driven attention in the brain. Nature reviews Neuroscience, vol 3, no. 3, pp. 201–215. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn755 (In English)
Di Salvo, M. (2025) Psicoterapia e plasticità cognitiva e neuronale. Cervello sociale e disturbo post-traumatico da stress. Note a L’interprete di M. Gazzaniga [Psychotherapy and cognitive and neural plasticity. the social brain and post-traumatic stress disorder. Notes on M. Gazzaniga’s The Interpreter]. Ricerca Psicoanalitica, vol 36, no. 1, pp. 79–95. https://doi.org/10.4081/rp.2025.854 (In Italian)
Doyle, W. (2016) How Finland broke every rule — and created a top school system. Hechinger Report, 18 February. [Online]. Available at: https://schoolleadership20.com/profiles/blogs/how-finland-broke-every-rule-and-created-a-top-school-system-by-w (accessed 15.06.2025). (In English)
Dregan, A., Armstrong, D. (2010) Adolescence sleep disturbances as predictors of adulthood sleep disturbances — a cohort study. Journal of Adolescent Health, vol. 46, no. 5, pp. 482–487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.11.197 (In English)
Drummond, A., Sauer, J. D. (2014) Video-games do not negatively impact adolescent academic performance in science, mathematics or reading. PLOS One, vol. 9, no. 4, article e87943. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0087943 (In English)
Eggermont, S., Van den Bulck, J. (2006) Nodding off or switching off? The use of popular media as a sleep aid in secondary-school children. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, vol. 42, no. 7–8, pp. 428–433. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1754.2006.00892.x (In English)
Ferguson, C. J., Olson, C. K. (2014) Video Game violence use among “Vulnerable” populations: The impact of violent games on delinquency and bullying among children with clinically elevated depression or attention deficit symptoms. Journal Youth Adolescence, no. 43, pp. 127–136. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-9986-5 (In English)
Fobian, A. D., Avis, K., Schwebel, D. C. (2016) Impact of media use on adolescent sleep efficiency. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, vol. 37, no. 1, pp. 9–14. https://doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0000000000000239 (In English)
Fossum, I. N., Nordnes, L. T., Storemark, S. S. et al. (2014) The association between use of electronic media in bed before going to sleep and insomnia symptoms, daytime sleepiness, morningness, and chronotype. Behavioral Sleep Medicine, vol. 12, no. 5, pp. 343–357. https://doi.org/10.1080/15402002.2013.819468 (In English)
Gradisar, M., Kahn, M., Micic, G. et al. (2022) Sleep’s role in the development and resolution of adolescent depression. Nature Reviews Psychology, vol. 1, no. 9, pp. 512–523. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44159-022-00074-8 (In English)
Gradisar, M., Wolfson, A. R., Harvey, A. G. et al. (2013) The sleep and technology use of Americans: findings from the national sleep foundation’s 2011 sleep in America poll. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine, vol. 09, no. 12, pp. 1291–1299. https://doi.org/10.5664/jcsm.3272 (In English)
Hale, L., Li, X., Hartstein, L. E., LeBourgeois, M. K. (2019) Media use and sleep in teenagers: What do we know? Current Sleep Medicine Reports, vol. 5, pp. 128–134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40675-019-00146-x (In English)
Han, X., Zhou, E., Liu, D. (2024) Electronic media use and sleep quality: Updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Medical Internet Research, vol. 26, article e48356. https://doi.org/10.2196/48356 (In English)
Immordino-Yang, M. H., Christodoulou, J. A., Singh, V. (2012) Rest is not idleness: implications of the brain’s default mode for human development and education. Perspectives on Psychological Science, vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 352–364. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612447308 (In English)
Ivarsson, M., Anderson, M., Åkerstedt, T., Lindblad, F. (2013) The effect of violent and nonviolent video games on heart rate variability, sleep, and emotions in adolescents with different violent gaming habits. Psychosomatic Medicine, vol. 75, no. 4, pp. 390–396. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0b013e3182906a4c (In English)
Kowert, R., Vogelgesang, J. F., Quandt, T. (2015) Psychosocial causes and consequences of online video game play. Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 45, pp. 51–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.11.074 (In English)
Kroese, F. M., Evers, C., Adriaanse, M. A., de Ridder, D. T. D. (2016) Bedtime procrastination: A self-regulation perspective on sleep insufficiency in the general population. Journal of Health Psychology, vol. 21, no. 5, pp. 853–862. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105314540014 (In English)
Kush, J. C., Watkins, M. W. (1996) Long-term stability of children’s attitudes toward reading. The Journal of Educational Research, vol. 89, no. 5, pp. 315–319. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.1996.9941333 (In English)
LeBourgeois, M. K., Hale, L., Chang, A.-M. et al. (2017) Digital media and sleep in childhood and adolescence. Pediatrics, vol. 140 (2), pp. S92–S96. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-1758J (In English)
Li, J., Lepp, A., Barkley, J. E. (2015) Locus of control and cell phone use: Implications for sleep quality, academic performance, and subjective well-being. Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 52, pp. 450–457. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.06.021 (In English)
Lim, H. J., Bong, M., Woo, Y. (2015) Reading attitude as a mediator between contextual factors and reading behavior. Teachers College Record, vol. 117, no. 1, pp. 1–36. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146811511700116 (In English)
Logan, S., Johnston, R. (2009) Gender differences in reading ability and attitudes: Examining where these differences lie. Journal of Research in Reading, vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 199–214. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9817.2008.01389.x (In English)
Mac Cárthaigh, S., Griffin, C., Perry, J. (2020) The relationship between sleep and problematic smartphone use among adolescents: A systematic review. Developmental Review, vol. 55, article 100897. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2020.100897 (In English)
Martinez, R. S., Aricak, O. T., Jewell, J. (2008) Influence of reading attitude on reading achievement: A test of the temporal-interaction model. Psychology in the Schools, vol. 45, no. 10, pp. 1010–1023. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20348 (In English)
McKenna, M. C., Conradi, K., Lawrence, C. et al. (2012) Reading attitudes of middle school students: Results of a U.S. survey. Reading Research Quarterly, vol. 47, no. 3, pp. 283–306. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.021 (In English)
McKenna, M. C., Kear, D. J., Ellsworth, R. A. (1995) Children’s attitudes toward reading: A national survey. Reading Research Quarterly, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 934–956. https://doi.org/10.2307/748205 (In English)
McManus, B., Underhill, A., Mrug, S. et al. (2021) Gender moderates the relationship between media use and sleep quality. Journal of Sleep Research, vol. 30, no. 4, article e13243. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsr.13243 (In English)
McNally, J., Harrington, B. (2017) How millennials and teens consume mobile video. In: TVX’17: Proceedings of the 2017 ACM International Conference on Interactive Experiences for TV and Online Video. New York: Association for Computing Machinery Publ., pp. 31–39. https://doi.org/10.1145/3077548.3077555 (In English)
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J. et al. (2009) Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. PLoS medicine, vol. 6, no. 7, article e1000097. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000097 (In English)
Northoff, G., Duncan, N. W., Hayes, D. J. (2010) The brain and its resting state activity—Experimental and methodological implications. Progress in Neurobiology, vol. 92, no. 4, pp. 593–600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pneurobio.2010.09.002 (In English)
OECD. (2019) PISA 2018 Results (Vol. I): What students know and can do, PISA. Paris: OECD Publ., 354 p. https://doi.org/10.1787/5f07c754-en (In English)
Orchard, F., Gregory, A. M., Gradisar, M., Reynolds, S. (2020) Self-reported sleep patterns and quality amongst adolescents: Cross-sectional and prospective associations with anxiety and depression. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, vol. 61, no. 10, pp. 1126–1137. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13288 (In English)
Pew Research Center. (2010) Global Digital Communication: Texting Social Networking Popular Worldwide. [Online]. Available at: https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2011/12/20/global-digital-communication-texting-social-networking-popular-worldwide/ (accessed 15.06.2025). (In English)
Rasmusson, M., Åberg-Bengtsson, L. (2014) Does Performance in digital reading relate to computer game playing? A study of factor structure and gender patterns in 15-year-olds’ reading literacy performance. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, vol. 59, no. 6, pp. 691–709. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2014.965795 (In English)
Respi, C., Gui, M., Abbiati, G. et al. (2025) Report di fine progetto EYES UP (EarlYExposure to Screens and Unequal Performance). Precocita digitale, performance scolastiche e disuguaglianze: nuove evidenze e prospettive [EYES UP (Early Exposure to Screens and Unequal Performance) Project Final Report. Early Digital Education, School Performance, and Inequalities: New Evidence and Perspectives]. Milano: EYES UP Publ., 72 p. (In Italian)
Sainsbury, M., Schagen, I. (2004) Attitudes to reading at ages nine and eleven. Journal of Research in Reading, vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 373–386. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9817.2004.00240.x (In English)
Scott, E., Panksepp, J. (2003) Rough-and-tumble play in human children. Aggressive Behavior, vol. 29, pp. 539–551. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.10062 (In English)
Scott, H., Woods, H. C. (2018) Fear of missing out and sleep: Cognitive behavioural factors in adolescents’ nighttime social media use. Journal of Adolescence, vol. 68, no. 1, pp. 61–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2018.07.009 (In English)
Siebers, T., Beyens, I., Baumgartner, S. E., Valkenburg, P. M. (2024) Adolescents’ digital nightlife: The comparative effects of day- and nighttime smartphone use on sleep quality. Communication Research. https://doi.org/10.1177/00936502241276793 (In English)
Silva, S. S. D., Silveira, M. A., Almeida, H. C. et al. (2022) Use of digital screens by adolescents and association on sleep quality: A systematic review. Cadernos de saude publica, vol. 38, no. 10, article e00300721. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311XEN300721 (In English)
Siviy, S. M., Panksepp, J. (2011) In search of the neurobiological substrates for social playfulness in mammalian brains. Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews, vol. 35, no. 9, pp. 1821–1830. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.03.006 (In English)
Smallwood, J., Obonsawin, M., Heim, D. (2003) Task unrelated thought: The role of distributed processing. Consciousness and Cognition: An International Journal, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 169–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1053-8100(02)00003-X (In English)
Sohn, S. Y., Rees, P., Wildridge, B. et al. (2019) Prevalence of problematic smartphone usage and associated mental health outcomes amongst children and young people: A systematic review, meta-analysis and GRADE of the evidence. BMC Psychiatry, vol. 19, article 356. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-019-2350-x (In English)
Sölpük, N. (2017) The effect of attitude on student achievement. In: E. Karadag (ed.). The factors effecting student achievement. Cham: Springer Publ., pp. 57–73. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-56083-0_4 (In English)
Spreng, R. N., Grady, C. L. (2010) Patterns of brain activity supporting autobiographical memory, prospection, and theory of mind, and their relationship to the default mode network. Journal of cognitive Neuroscience, vol. 22, no. 6, pp. 1112–1123. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2009.21282 (In English)
Spreng, R. N., Mar, R. A., Kim, A. S. (2009) The common neural basis of autobiographical memory, prospection, navigation, theory of mind, and the default mode: A quantitative meta-analysis. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 489–510. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2008.21029 (In English)
Spreng, R. N., Stevens, W. D., Chamberlain, J. P. et al. (2010) Default network activity, coupled with the frontoparietal control network, supports goal-directed cognition. NeuroImage, vol. 53, no. 1, pp. 303–317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.06.016 (In English)
Sumter, S. R., Baumgartner, S. E., Wiradhany, W. (2024) Beyond screentime: A 7-day mobile tracking study among college students to disentangle smartphone screentime and content effects on sleep. Behaviour & Information Technology, vol. 44, no. 6, pp. 1260–1276. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2024.2350663 (In English)
Swing, E. L., Gentile, D. A., Anderson, C. A., Walsh, D. A. (2010) Television and video game exposure and the development of attention problems. Pediatrics, vol. 126 no. 2, pp. 214–221. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2009-1508 (In English)
Tang, N. K. Y., Harvey, A. G. (2004) Effects of cognitive arousal and physiological arousal on sleep perception. Sleep, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 69–78. https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/27.1.69 (In English)
Thernstrom, M. (2016) The anti-helicopter parent's plea: Let kids play. New York Times Magazine, 19 October. [Online]. Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/23/magazine/the-anti-helicopter-parents-plea-let-kids-play.html (accessed 15.06.2025). (In English)
Tkaczyk, M., Lacko, D., Elavsky, S. et al. (2023) Are smartphones detrimental to adolescent sleep? An electronic diary study of evening smartphone use and sleep. Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 149, article 107946. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2023.107946 (In English)
Toh, S. H., Howie, E. K., Coenen, P., Straker, L. M. (2019) “From the moment I wake up I will use it... every day, very hour”: A qualitative study on the patterns of adolescents’ mobile touch screen device use from adolescent and parent perspectives. BMC Pediatrics, vol. 19, article 30. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-019-1399-5 (In English)
Trapnell, P., Sinclair, L. (2012) Texting frequency and the moral shallowing hypothesis. Poster presented at the Annual Meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology. San Diego: The University of Winnipeg Publ. [Online]. Available at: https://news.uwinnipeg.ca/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/texting-study.pdf (accessed 15.06.2025). (In English)
Triantafillou, S., Saeb, S., Lattie, E. G. et al. (2019) Relationship between sleep quality and mood: Ecological momentary assessment study. JMIR Mental Health, vol. 6, no. 3, article e12613. https://doi.org/10.2196/12613 (In English)
Valkenburg, P. M., Peter, J. (2013) The differential susceptibility to media effects model. Journal of Communication, vol. 63, no. 2, pp. 221–243. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12024 (In English)
Van den Bulck, J. (2003) Text messaging as a cause of sleep interruption in adolescents, evidence from a cross-sectional study. Journal of Sleep Research, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 263. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2869.2003.00362.x (In English)
Walker, T. D. (2015) The joyful, illiterate kindergartners of Finland. Atlantic Monthly, 1 October. [Online]. Available at: https://www.bowdoin.edu/childrens-center/pdf/the-joyful-illiterate-kindergartners-of-finland.pdf (accessed 15.06.2025). (In English)
Weaver, E., Gradisar, M., Dohnt, H. et al. (2010) The effect of presleep video-game playing on adolescent sleep. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 184–189. https://doi.org/10.5664/jcsm.27769 (In English)
Wolfe, J., Kar, K., Perry, A. et al. (2014) Single night video-game use leads to sleep loss and attention deficits in older adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, vol. 37, no. 7, pp. 1003–1009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2014.07.013 (In English)
Wolfers, L. N., Utz, S. (2022) Social media use, stress, and coping. Current Opinion in Psychology, vol. 45, article 101305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101305 (In English)
Wuyts, J., De Valck, E., Vandekerckhove, M. et al. (2012) The influence of pre-sleep cognitive arousal on sleep onset processes. International Journal of Psychophysiology, vol. 83, no. 1, pp. 8–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2011.09.016 (In English)
Yang, J., Fu, X., Liao, X., Li, Y. (2020) Association of problematic smartphone use with poor sleep quality, depression, and anxiety: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychiatry Research, vol. 284, article 112686. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.112686 (In English)
Zhang, W., Gu, L. (2023) The role of computer game playing and reading attitudes in digital reading achievement: Evidence from Hong Kong 15-year-olds. Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning, vol. 18, article 019. https://doi.org/10.58459/rptel.2023.18019 (In English)
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Michele Di Salvo
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
The work is provided under the terms of the Public Offer and of Creative Commons public license Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0).
This license permits an unlimited number of users to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format, and to remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, including commercial use.
This license retains copyright for the authors but allows others to freely distribute, use, and adapt the work, on the mandatory condition that appropriate credit is given. Users must provide a correct link to the original publication in our journal, cite the authors' names, and indicate if any changes were made.
Copyright remains with the authors. The CC BY 4.0 license does not transfer rights to third parties but rather grants users prior permission for use, provided the attribution condition is met. Any use of the work will be governed by the terms of this license.
